Police are public employees who enforce the law and maintain
order. They work to prevent crime and to protect the lives and property of the
people of a community. Policemen and policewomen serve their communities in
many ways. The patrol streets to guard against crime and to assist people with
various problems. Police officers direct traffic to keep it running smoothly
and safely. The police are often called to settle quarrels, find list people,
or aid accident victims. During floods, fires, and other disasters, they help
provide shelter, transport, and protection for victims.
The police form part of a nation’s criminal justice system, which also includes courts and prisons. Police officers enforce criminal law, which covers murder, robbery, burglary and other crimes and arrest suspected criminals. They also serve as witnesses in court trials.
Every nation in the world has a police system. Most countries have a number of separate police organizations, each responsible for policing a particular area, or particular type of crime. Australia has 8 separate police forces, the United Kingdom has more than 50, and the United States has about 40,000 separate police agencies. Some countries have one police force, controlled and financed by the national government. For example, China, France, Ireland and New Zealand each have a single, national police organization.
Police officers are called by a wide variety of popular names. In Britain and some other countries, they are called coppers, a word that may have originated from cop, meaning to seize or arrest. Police in the United State are often called cops. The word cop may have come from the initials cop (constable on patrol). Some experts believe cop is short for copper, a word that referred to the copper badges worn by police officers. At one time, British police officers were nicknamed Peelers or bobbies, after Sir Robert Peel, founder of the London Metropolitan Police. Other slang terms for the police include the bill, the law and the fuzz.
Police activities
Uniformed patrols are the major area of police work. Uniformed officers are assigned beats (areas or routes) to cover on foot, in squad cars, or on motorcycles. In some cities, they petrol on horseback and in many river and harbour areas, police patrol in boats.
Petrol officers survey their beats repeatedly. Foot patrol officers often carry two-way pocket radios, and patrol cars are equipped with larger two-way radios. Officers may receive assignments over their radios to help settle a family argument. If necessary, they may call the police station for assistance in handling an assignment. Petrol officers are often assigned to control crowds at sports meetings, processions, political gatherings and other large public events.
Police officers may arrest a person they see commitment a crime. They also may arrest a person if they have reasonable cause to suspect that the person is committing a crime or is about to commit one. But in some cases, police officers are required to get a court order called a warrant before making an arrest.
Traffic patrols. Traffic officers promote safety on streets and main roads. They normally wear uniforms and patrol in cars or on motorcycles. Some police forces use helicopters to survey traffic. Police on traffic duty may direct traffic; protect pedestrians; aid motorists; and enforce parking, speed and other traffic laws. Traffic officers also investigate major traffic accidents and help ensure safety for other vehicles. In most countries, police on traffic patrols enforce insurance, license, and tax regulations for motor vehicles and their drivers.
Investigating crime is the main work of detectives, who are sometimes called plainclothes officers because they do not wear uniforms. The detectives section usually has a special name, such as Criminal investigation Branch (CIB) in Australia police forces or Criminal Investigation Department (CID) in Britain. Detective try to discover who committed a crime and to find the evidence necessary to convict the criminal in court.
In larger police forces, some detectives work in various specialized squads that deal with such crimes as murder, robbery, fraud or the illegal sale of drugs. Murder case detectives may start their inquiry by searching for bloodstains, fingerprints and weapons. Detectives question any witnesses, suspects or others who may have information about the crime.
Various technical specialization in a police department assist the detective in an investigation. Some of these specialists are police officers, but others are specially trained civilians. A photography unit may take pictures or video records of the crime scene and the evidence. Experts from a police laboratory collect and examine bloodstains, bullets, hair samples, fingerprints, weapons, and other evidence. Police laboratory experts may perform chemical tests to identify any unknown substance connected with the crime. The detectives in charge of an investigation supervise the technical specialists involved. Later, the reports of the detectives and the technical specialists are used in court.
Some plainclothes police offers are assigned to gather intelligence (information) about the activities of suspected criminals. The women and men who work in the criminal intelligence division of a police department are sometimes called undercover agents. They gather information on such criminal operation as the illegal sale of drugs. The reports of intelligence officers are used in developing plans fight criminal activities.
Juvenile and social work. Officers in both plainclothes and uniformed branches do some work in which social objectives are more prominent than law enforcement. For example, some officers work with young people in clubs or other community activities. Other officers visit schools, or other community activities. Other officers visit schools, or clubs for the general public, to talk about police work. Some police officers become involved in counseling and helping people with extreme problems, so that they are less likely to become involved in crime. The police also work with voluntary organizations and social workers to help the victims of crime.
Records and communications. The records bureau of a police department keeps files on all reported crimes, investigations, and arrest on various police activities. Many police departments use computers to process and store these records. Many countries also have centralized criminal, vehicle, and other records which can be referred to by officers in each police force.
The communications centre is another important unit of a police department. Its command and control room receives calls for help or reports of crimes and send officers to the scene. Many larger police agencies use computers in this operation. When a report of a crime or a call for help comes into the control room, the information is typed on the terminal of a computer. A control room officer reviews the problem and sends the information to one or more available patrol cars. The patrol officers receive the information by radio or over terminals in their cars.
Specialists activities. Large police forces have various specialized units, which may include search and rescue teams, dog handlers, bomb squads and special weapons units. Most members of such units work at other assignments until their special skills are needed. Some medium-sized and large police forces also have separate data processing and research officers.
Search and rescue teams try to find people lost in forests, mountains, caves or other out-of-the-way places. Members of these teams are trained in rock climbing, mountain survival and other skills. They often use helicopters and aeroplanes in rescue missions.
Dog handlers work with dogs trained in special tasks such as catching fugitives, or finding drugs or bombs using the dogs keen sense of smell. Dog handles also do some specialized uniformed patrols, using the dogs as a deterrent against crime, or where their speed may be useful in catching suspects.
Bomb squads respond to reports of bomb threats. They search the building or other place a bomb supposedly has been planted. If they find a bomb, they try to prevent it from exploding or more it to be a place where it cannot damage property or injure people.
Special weapons units carry arms and are trained to handle dangerous situations involving armed criminals or terrorists. Members of these units are skilled in the use of high-powered rifles and other weapons. They know how to surround and capture criminals with the least possible danger to others.
Data processing and research offices perform a variety of services. These offices may be staffed by police officers or by private citizens. Staff members compile crime statistics to help identify high-crime areas. They also prepare reports on present and future needs for personnel, equipment or finance. In addition, they research new investigation techniques.
Police around the world
In some countries, the national government directs the police system and maintains a national police force. Ireland, for example, has a national police force officers and the uniform is exactly the same for all police officers. Other countries have a number separate police forces, each with its own uniform.
In addition to law enforcement, police in some countries also military duties, or are part of the military services. For such countries, figures of the number of police may be misleading or unavailable. Countries with links or overlap between police and military organizations include China, France, Pakistan, the Philippines and South America.
All the world’s police forces have a series of ranks. In most countries, officer at the lowest rank are called constables. More experienced officers who supervise constables’ work include sergeants, lieutenants, inspectors, and superintendents. The head of a police force may be called a chief constable, commissioner, or chief commissioner.
Australia has eight separate police forces. Each of the six states, and the Northern Territoty has its own force. The federal police force maintains law and order in the Australian Capital Territory, and guards federal government property, including airports. Federal police also deal with crimes relating to federal laws, such as making counterfeit money. Australia has more than 30,000 police. The largest force is that of New South Wales.
Uniformed police in Australia work in such divisions as patrol, training, communications, and prosecutions. Uniformed police found in special units include water police, rescue squards, mounted units, and police bands. In addition, some uniformed police run youth clubs, thereby establishing friendly contact with youngsters. Most plainclothes police are detectives, belonging to the Criminal Investigation Branch (CIB). Within the CIB are special units, such as the drug squad, armed hold-up squad, and breaking squad. The New South Wales police force maintains a central collection of fingerprints for use by all police forces in Australia.
Australia’s first police force was a night watch formed in 1789 to keep public order in Sydney. South Australia consolidated its force in 1838. Victoria united its force in 1853, Western Australia in 1861, New South Wales in 1862, Queensland in 1864, and Tasmania in 1899. The Northern Territory police date from 1911 and the federal police from 1960.
Canada has national, provincial and city police forces. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) enforces federal laws throughout Canada. It serves as a provincial police force in all the provinces except Ontario and Quebec, which have their own forces. The RCMP is the only police force in the Yukon Territory and the Northwest Territories. It also provides police services on a contract basis to about 175 cities. Members of the RCMP are traditionally called ‘mounties’ though they now ride horses only in special ceremonies. The RCMP has 19,000 staff cars. It was founded in 1873. (Royal Canadian Mounted Police).
China has a national police force called the People’s Police. The force is directed locally by provincial public security bureaus. These bureaus function under the Ministry of Public Security, an agency of the National Government. The People’s Police is also supported by some branches of the People’s Liberation Army, both in the cities and rural areas.
France has a national law enforcement agency, the ‘Surete Nationale’. It forms part of the Ministry of the Interior. This organization operates in Paris and in cities and towns with a population of more than 10,000. Smaller towns and villages are policed by the Gendarmerie Nationale, goverved by the Ministry of Defence. Another force controlled by the Ministry of the Interior is the Compagnies Republicaines de Securite (CRS), a reserve force of highly trained, armed men for use in emergencies. French police lieutenant of police to Paris. The combined forces of the French police total about 200,000.
Germany has separate police forces for each of the individual states. The states also maintain stand-by police, who assist the state police when necessary.
Hong Kong’s citizens are protected by the Royal Hong Kong Force, numbering about 25,000. The force is headed by a commissioner and companies four police districts. It was established in 1842.
India has a national law enforcement agency, the Indian Police. This is a central organization for all India, and there are separate forces for each of the 25 states and 7 union territories. In 1861, when India was under Britain rule, the Imperial Police Service
was founded. It changed its name to the Indian Police Service in 1947, when India became independent.
Ireland. The national police force for the Republic of Ireland is the Garda Siochana, which has a total strength of about 11,000. The largest part of the force is the Dublin Metropolitan Area and there are also 18 country divisions. Men at the lowest rank are known as Gardai. Members of the women’s police are known as Ban Ghardai. The Garda Siochana, created in 1922, achieved its present general form in 1925.
Malaysia. The national police force is the Royal Malaysian Police and it was founded in 1807 in the town of Penang. There are 664 police stations and 658 police posts in Malaysia.
New Zealand has a single, national police force of 5,000 officers, its present general structure dates from 1886. That first New Zealand police were a few constables appointed in 1840. An armed constabulary was formed in 1846. Various provincial police forces were combined into one armed constabulary in 1877. The unarmed force which exists today was formed in 1886.
Pakistan. The police force in Pakistan has been in existence since declaration of independence in 1948. The police force consists of five separate bodies all headed by the Inspector General of Police. The Islamabad Police patrol the federal capital, Islamabad, and there are forces for each of the four provinces, Baluchistan, North-West Frontier Province, the Punjab and Sind.
Philippines. The Philippines National Police (PNP) is the national police force. It has 50,000 members and is part of the armed forces. The Philippine National Police is an integrated force which took responsibility for internal security in 1991.
Russia. Russian’s police organization was in a state of transition in the early 1990’s, following the breakup of the Soviet Union I December 1991. Some former Soviet institutions remained Members of a national militia continued to provide general policing. The militia operated under a Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) that from 1992 owed its allegiance to the republic of Russia. The former Soviet Committee of State Security, the KGB, had also directed the work of the militia. It was abolished in October 1991.
South Africa. The national police force is known as the South African Police. In 1972, the force was divided into 18 divisions, with 80 police districts and 1,040 police stations. The total number of officers was recorded at 32, 267. The South African Police are more involved in military work than the police forces in other countries. Any part of the police force may be used for national defence. It was formed following the Police Act of 1910.
United Kingdom has more than 150,000 Policemen and policewomen, organized in 52 police forces. In England and Wales, there are 41 police forces organized in countries or group of countries. In addition, London has the London Metropolitan Police and City of London Police. Scotland has eight police forces, organized on a regional basis. The largest UK force is the London Metropolitan Police, with more than 26,000 employees.
Police forces cooperate with one another in the course of their work and share many central services. regional crime squads pursue criminals in any of the areas forming a region. Specialist departments of the London Metropolitan Police include the murder squad, the fraud squad and the criminal records office. The data and facilities of these departments are available to other departments and police forces. The Metropolitan Police has its headquarters at New Scotland Yard.
The Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) is responsible for the policing of Northern Ireland. The RUC has three operational areas, each under the command of an assistant chief constable.
United States police agencies operate under city, country, state, or federal gocernments. Each agency is responsible only to its own division of government. Private police agencies are licensed by the states to provide certain types of police services. New York City has the largest city police department in the United States – about 29,000 police officers. A small town may have police force of only one or two officers.
Some city police departments have specialized forces with certain limited powers. Such forces include airport police, housing police, park police, and transit police. In most countries, a sheriff, elected by the people, is the chief law enforcement officer. In some states, the sheriff’s department provides police services on a contract basis to cities and towns within the country. State police enforce state laws and coordinate police activities within the state.
The most famous federal law enforcement agency is the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The FBI is the chief investigating branch of the United States Department of justice. It investigates federal crimes and handles cases involving stolen money or property that has been taken from one state to another. The FBI also operates the The National Crime Information Center (NCIC) in Washington, DC. The NCIC is a computerized information system tat stores records on wanted persons and stolen property. Nine other major federal law enforcement agencies also have full police powers. They deal with matters such as customs, drug abuse, immigration, the postal service, international intelligence and tax fraud.
Interpol
Interpol is an international organization of police forces from almost all countries. Its official name is the international Criminal Police Organization. Members of Interpol exchange information about international criminals and cooperate in fighting such international crimes as counterfeiting, smuggling and illegal buying and selling weapons. the organization’s staff keeps records of international crime, help in technical cooperation between members, and provide training and general consultation for member police forces.
Interpol is governed by a general assembly, in which each member has one vote. The assembly elects a presidents and 12 other members of the executive committee. The headquarters of Interpol are known as the General Secretariat and employ more than 250 staff. They are located in the city of Lyon in France.
The International Criminal Police Commission was founded in 1923, and based in Vienna. Its aim was to combat international crime, but almost all of its members were European. The commission was reorganized in 1946, and moved to Paris. By 1956, it had grown to 50 members, and it adopted the name Interpol along with the present constitution.
History
In many ancient societies, the military forces served as police. In ancient Rome, for example. The military legions of the rulers enforced the law. Augustus, who became emperor in 27 BC, formed a nonmilitary police force called the vigils. The vigils were responsible for keeping the peace and fighting fires in Rome.
During the AD 800’s, England developed a system of law enforcement based on citizen responsibility. The people of every community were divided into tithings (groups of 10 families), and each tithing was responsible for the conduct of its members. Males who were more than 16 years old stood watch duty. When a serious crime occurred, all able-bodied men joined in a hue and cry. (chase of the suspect). Each shine (county) was leaded by a reeve (chief). The word sheriff is a shortened form of shire reeve.
In 1750, Hendry Fielding, a magistrate and author, organized with his half brother Sir John Fielding, the Bow Street Patrols to police the streets of London. They also formed the Bow Street Runners, who were the first paid detectives. These officers ran to the scene of a crime to capture the criminal and begin an investigation.
Sir Robert Peel, a British stateman, founded the loyal Irish Constabulary in 1814 and the London Metropolitan Police in 1829. The Metropolitan Police was organized along military lines, and its offices were carefully selected and trained. Peel is regar as the father of modern, professional police organizations.
In North America colonists established the English watch system in the towns and villages of New England. In the Southern Colonies, sheriffs were responsible for keeping the peace. Later, on the Western frontier, sheriffs and marshals enforced the law. The Texas Rangers, a band of mounted riflemen organized in the early 1800’s, patrolled the Mexican border and tracked down cattle rustlers and other outlaws. In 1845, New York City combined its separate day and night watches into a single city police force modeled on the London Metropolitan Police.
During the early 1900’s, August Vollmer, the police chief of Berkeley, California, gained fame as a police reformer. Vollmer brought about many changes in the police system. He urged reorganization of police departments, college education for police officers, and the use of scientific methods in police work.
From the 1960’s to the 1990’s, a number of developments occurred that changed the nature of police work. Police in many countries had to deal with riots and political demonstrations on a large scale. Many police forces began actively to recruit members of ethnic minority groups, and to improve relations between ethnic groups in the community. Women were recruited to the police on a larger scale and began to share fully in all police work. And the police worked increasingly with the public in crime prevention, particularly in the development of neighbourhood watch self-help groups.
Related articles – Arrest, Ballistic (Forensic ballistics), Bow Street Runners, Clothing (pictures), Constable, Crime, Criminology, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Fingerprinting, Footprinting, Handcufs, Helicopter (For aerial observation), Juvenile delinquency, Lie detector, Marshal, Sir Robert Peel, Police laboratory, Police State, Proson, Probation, Radar (In controlling traffic speed and flow), Riot, Secret police, Sheriff and bailiff, Thermography, Warrant, and Wiretapping.
POLICE LABORATOR
Police laboratory is a laboratory where experts analyse, identify, and interpret, evidence connected, with a crime. Glass splinters or a gun found on a suspect may be matched with broken glass or a bullet taken from the scene of a crime. The pattern of bloodstains near a body may indicate how a murder was committed. Other evidence includes documents, drugs, and narcotics, fibres, fingerprints, hair and soil. Large police forces maintain their own laboratories.
The technique of using scientific methods in solving crimes is called forensic science. A person who examine evidence in a police laboratory is known as a forensic scientist. The word forensic comes from the Latin word forensic, meaning forum or court of law.
Forensic science includes such specialists as forensic psychiatry, forensic toxicology, and forensic pathology. A forensic psyschiatrist examines people suspected of a crime to determine whether they are legally sane. A forensic toxicologist identities drugs and poisons in body tissues and determines their effects. A forensic pathologist performs postmortem examinations of victims to learn the cause of death.
How evidence is handled
Forensic scientists and other investigations protect all evidence according to a security process called a chain of evidence. This process involves keeping a record keeping a record of each person who handles the evidence. The chain begins at the scene of a crime and ends when the evidence is presented in court. If any evidence is left unguarded during this period, the judge may disallow its admission in court.
There are three steps in handling evidence: (1) collecting the evidence at the scene of a crime, (2) analyzing the evidence in the laboratory and (3) presenting the evidence in court.
Collecting the evidence. In most crimes, the evidence is collected either by police officers or by technicians associated with a police laboratory. But in such serious crimes as bank robbery laboratory. But in such serious crime as bank robbery and murder, forensic scientists themselves often go to the scene of a crime. They gather the evidence and, if possible, try to reconstruct the crime as it happened.
After a crime is discovered, the police freeze the scene. They permit nothing to be disturbed and keep unauthorized people out of the area.
Police investigators first pthotograph the scene from several angles to show the location of the evidence. Then a police artist or an investigator draws a crime scene sketch, which records the exact position of each piece of evidence according to precise measurement. The evidence is then collected.
The investigators use several methods to collect evidence. One of the most important methods is used to reveal fingerprints. First, the experts dust (brush) a surface with powder. The powder sticks to the oils left on a surface by one or more fingers. The print is photographed and then lifted from the surface with clear adhesive tape. The tape transfers the print to a piece of paper, which forms a permanent record. Fingerprints in blood, grease, or other visible material are photographed directly.
To preserve other marks, such as footprints and tyre tracks, investigators first photograph them. Then, a cast of the mark is made with plaster of Paris.
Investigators sometimes use special instruments to collect evidence. For example, a plastic container called a vacuumed trap fits on the end of a vacuum cleaner hose and gathers small particles called trace evidence. Trace evidence includes fibres, hairs, sand, wood splinters, and particles of glass and paint. Larger evidence, such as bullets and firearms, is also collected. Samples are taken from blood or other body-fluid stains, if they are not on removal articles.
Investigators label each piece of evidence. The labels not only identify evidence but also help separate the evidence of one crime from that of another.
Analysing the evidence. A police laboratory uses several techniques to identify and analyse evidence. These techniques include microscopic examination, chemical treatments, and the use of special instruments.
Most police laboratories have several types of microscopes. A bullet comparison microscope is used to compare two or more bullets and to examine tool marks and determine their source (see Ballistics (Forensic ballistics)). Scientists identify minerials and drugs with a polarizing microscope, which enlarges the crystal forms of each material. A stereoscopic binocular microscope helps sort trace evidence and is used to examine handwriting, typewriting and samples of paint.
Handwriting can be identified by experts as belonging to a particular person if there is a genuine sample to compare it with. Forged signatures can also be detected, but it is not always possible to attribute them to a particular person. Typewriters can sometimes be identified by broken or distorted characters.
Scientists use chemicals to identify certain damaged evidence. For example, they use acid to restore partially erased serial numbers on some stolen property. They also use chemicals to determine the cause of an explosion or a fire. These chemicals detect traces of flammable substances, including petrol and paraffin, in the burned remains. Chemicals also help identify samples of blood and other body fluids. It is now possible to identify people not just by their blood group but also by the chemical makeup of their individual body cells.
Since the mid-1900’s, many new instruments have been used in police laboratories. They include the spectrophotometer and the gas chromatograph. A spectrophotometer records light and heat the human eve cannot detect. This instrument shows the pattern of the rays when they strike an object. Forgeries or illegal treasures on documents can be detected by comparing the pattern of rays in ink. A gas chromatograph separates the various components of a substance. The amount of each component is then measured. This method is used to determine the amount of alcohol in a person’s blood. (See Chromatography).
One of the newest techniques of analyzing evidence is called DNA fingerprinting. In this method, investigators identify the persons to whom such substances as blood, hair, or semen belong by analyzing the genetic material that the substances contain. The genetic material, called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is present in most cells. Fingerprinting.
Presenting the evidence. Forensic scientists are responsible for explaining the significance of evidence. They usually present their findings in written reports and may also give evidence in court. They are called expert witnesses because of their training and experience. Courts allow most witnesses to present only facts, but expert witnesses can give opinions based on evidence. They serve chiefly as witnesses for the prosecution.
History
One of the first police laboratories was established in 1910 in Lyon, France, by Edmond Locard, a doctor. Locard helped work out various scientific methods to investigate crimes.
Alphonse Bertillion, a French statistician, developed a method of identifying persons according to their body measurements. This method, called the Bertillon system, was first used in Paris in 1879 and soon spread throughout the world.
Sir William J. Herschel, a British colonial administrator in India during the late, 1800’s, devised a workable method of fingerprint identification. Historians credit Sir Francis Galton, a British scientist, with developing Herschel’s methods into a modern system of fingerprint identification in the 1880’s. By the late 1910’s, fingerprinting had replaced the Bertillon system almost entirely as a more accurate method of identification.
Hans Cross, an Austrian jusge, probably invented the word criminalistics. In his book Criminal Investigation (1893), Gross declared that criminalistics as a science that should use a systematic approach to investigate crimes and analyse evidence. See also Footprinting; Voiceprint.
The police form part of a nation’s criminal justice system, which also includes courts and prisons. Police officers enforce criminal law, which covers murder, robbery, burglary and other crimes and arrest suspected criminals. They also serve as witnesses in court trials.
Every nation in the world has a police system. Most countries have a number of separate police organizations, each responsible for policing a particular area, or particular type of crime. Australia has 8 separate police forces, the United Kingdom has more than 50, and the United States has about 40,000 separate police agencies. Some countries have one police force, controlled and financed by the national government. For example, China, France, Ireland and New Zealand each have a single, national police organization.
Police officers are called by a wide variety of popular names. In Britain and some other countries, they are called coppers, a word that may have originated from cop, meaning to seize or arrest. Police in the United State are often called cops. The word cop may have come from the initials cop (constable on patrol). Some experts believe cop is short for copper, a word that referred to the copper badges worn by police officers. At one time, British police officers were nicknamed Peelers or bobbies, after Sir Robert Peel, founder of the London Metropolitan Police. Other slang terms for the police include the bill, the law and the fuzz.
Police activities
Uniformed patrols are the major area of police work. Uniformed officers are assigned beats (areas or routes) to cover on foot, in squad cars, or on motorcycles. In some cities, they petrol on horseback and in many river and harbour areas, police patrol in boats.
Petrol officers survey their beats repeatedly. Foot patrol officers often carry two-way pocket radios, and patrol cars are equipped with larger two-way radios. Officers may receive assignments over their radios to help settle a family argument. If necessary, they may call the police station for assistance in handling an assignment. Petrol officers are often assigned to control crowds at sports meetings, processions, political gatherings and other large public events.
Police officers may arrest a person they see commitment a crime. They also may arrest a person if they have reasonable cause to suspect that the person is committing a crime or is about to commit one. But in some cases, police officers are required to get a court order called a warrant before making an arrest.
Traffic patrols. Traffic officers promote safety on streets and main roads. They normally wear uniforms and patrol in cars or on motorcycles. Some police forces use helicopters to survey traffic. Police on traffic duty may direct traffic; protect pedestrians; aid motorists; and enforce parking, speed and other traffic laws. Traffic officers also investigate major traffic accidents and help ensure safety for other vehicles. In most countries, police on traffic patrols enforce insurance, license, and tax regulations for motor vehicles and their drivers.
Investigating crime is the main work of detectives, who are sometimes called plainclothes officers because they do not wear uniforms. The detectives section usually has a special name, such as Criminal investigation Branch (CIB) in Australia police forces or Criminal Investigation Department (CID) in Britain. Detective try to discover who committed a crime and to find the evidence necessary to convict the criminal in court.
In larger police forces, some detectives work in various specialized squads that deal with such crimes as murder, robbery, fraud or the illegal sale of drugs. Murder case detectives may start their inquiry by searching for bloodstains, fingerprints and weapons. Detectives question any witnesses, suspects or others who may have information about the crime.
Various technical specialization in a police department assist the detective in an investigation. Some of these specialists are police officers, but others are specially trained civilians. A photography unit may take pictures or video records of the crime scene and the evidence. Experts from a police laboratory collect and examine bloodstains, bullets, hair samples, fingerprints, weapons, and other evidence. Police laboratory experts may perform chemical tests to identify any unknown substance connected with the crime. The detectives in charge of an investigation supervise the technical specialists involved. Later, the reports of the detectives and the technical specialists are used in court.
Some plainclothes police offers are assigned to gather intelligence (information) about the activities of suspected criminals. The women and men who work in the criminal intelligence division of a police department are sometimes called undercover agents. They gather information on such criminal operation as the illegal sale of drugs. The reports of intelligence officers are used in developing plans fight criminal activities.
Juvenile and social work. Officers in both plainclothes and uniformed branches do some work in which social objectives are more prominent than law enforcement. For example, some officers work with young people in clubs or other community activities. Other officers visit schools, or other community activities. Other officers visit schools, or clubs for the general public, to talk about police work. Some police officers become involved in counseling and helping people with extreme problems, so that they are less likely to become involved in crime. The police also work with voluntary organizations and social workers to help the victims of crime.
Records and communications. The records bureau of a police department keeps files on all reported crimes, investigations, and arrest on various police activities. Many police departments use computers to process and store these records. Many countries also have centralized criminal, vehicle, and other records which can be referred to by officers in each police force.
The communications centre is another important unit of a police department. Its command and control room receives calls for help or reports of crimes and send officers to the scene. Many larger police agencies use computers in this operation. When a report of a crime or a call for help comes into the control room, the information is typed on the terminal of a computer. A control room officer reviews the problem and sends the information to one or more available patrol cars. The patrol officers receive the information by radio or over terminals in their cars.
Specialists activities. Large police forces have various specialized units, which may include search and rescue teams, dog handlers, bomb squads and special weapons units. Most members of such units work at other assignments until their special skills are needed. Some medium-sized and large police forces also have separate data processing and research officers.
Search and rescue teams try to find people lost in forests, mountains, caves or other out-of-the-way places. Members of these teams are trained in rock climbing, mountain survival and other skills. They often use helicopters and aeroplanes in rescue missions.
Dog handlers work with dogs trained in special tasks such as catching fugitives, or finding drugs or bombs using the dogs keen sense of smell. Dog handles also do some specialized uniformed patrols, using the dogs as a deterrent against crime, or where their speed may be useful in catching suspects.
Bomb squads respond to reports of bomb threats. They search the building or other place a bomb supposedly has been planted. If they find a bomb, they try to prevent it from exploding or more it to be a place where it cannot damage property or injure people.
Special weapons units carry arms and are trained to handle dangerous situations involving armed criminals or terrorists. Members of these units are skilled in the use of high-powered rifles and other weapons. They know how to surround and capture criminals with the least possible danger to others.
Data processing and research offices perform a variety of services. These offices may be staffed by police officers or by private citizens. Staff members compile crime statistics to help identify high-crime areas. They also prepare reports on present and future needs for personnel, equipment or finance. In addition, they research new investigation techniques.
Police around the world
In some countries, the national government directs the police system and maintains a national police force. Ireland, for example, has a national police force officers and the uniform is exactly the same for all police officers. Other countries have a number separate police forces, each with its own uniform.
In addition to law enforcement, police in some countries also military duties, or are part of the military services. For such countries, figures of the number of police may be misleading or unavailable. Countries with links or overlap between police and military organizations include China, France, Pakistan, the Philippines and South America.
All the world’s police forces have a series of ranks. In most countries, officer at the lowest rank are called constables. More experienced officers who supervise constables’ work include sergeants, lieutenants, inspectors, and superintendents. The head of a police force may be called a chief constable, commissioner, or chief commissioner.
Australia has eight separate police forces. Each of the six states, and the Northern Territoty has its own force. The federal police force maintains law and order in the Australian Capital Territory, and guards federal government property, including airports. Federal police also deal with crimes relating to federal laws, such as making counterfeit money. Australia has more than 30,000 police. The largest force is that of New South Wales.
Uniformed police in Australia work in such divisions as patrol, training, communications, and prosecutions. Uniformed police found in special units include water police, rescue squards, mounted units, and police bands. In addition, some uniformed police run youth clubs, thereby establishing friendly contact with youngsters. Most plainclothes police are detectives, belonging to the Criminal Investigation Branch (CIB). Within the CIB are special units, such as the drug squad, armed hold-up squad, and breaking squad. The New South Wales police force maintains a central collection of fingerprints for use by all police forces in Australia.
Australia’s first police force was a night watch formed in 1789 to keep public order in Sydney. South Australia consolidated its force in 1838. Victoria united its force in 1853, Western Australia in 1861, New South Wales in 1862, Queensland in 1864, and Tasmania in 1899. The Northern Territory police date from 1911 and the federal police from 1960.
Canada has national, provincial and city police forces. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) enforces federal laws throughout Canada. It serves as a provincial police force in all the provinces except Ontario and Quebec, which have their own forces. The RCMP is the only police force in the Yukon Territory and the Northwest Territories. It also provides police services on a contract basis to about 175 cities. Members of the RCMP are traditionally called ‘mounties’ though they now ride horses only in special ceremonies. The RCMP has 19,000 staff cars. It was founded in 1873. (Royal Canadian Mounted Police).
China has a national police force called the People’s Police. The force is directed locally by provincial public security bureaus. These bureaus function under the Ministry of Public Security, an agency of the National Government. The People’s Police is also supported by some branches of the People’s Liberation Army, both in the cities and rural areas.
France has a national law enforcement agency, the ‘Surete Nationale’. It forms part of the Ministry of the Interior. This organization operates in Paris and in cities and towns with a population of more than 10,000. Smaller towns and villages are policed by the Gendarmerie Nationale, goverved by the Ministry of Defence. Another force controlled by the Ministry of the Interior is the Compagnies Republicaines de Securite (CRS), a reserve force of highly trained, armed men for use in emergencies. French police lieutenant of police to Paris. The combined forces of the French police total about 200,000.
Germany has separate police forces for each of the individual states. The states also maintain stand-by police, who assist the state police when necessary.
Hong Kong’s citizens are protected by the Royal Hong Kong Force, numbering about 25,000. The force is headed by a commissioner and companies four police districts. It was established in 1842.
India has a national law enforcement agency, the Indian Police. This is a central organization for all India, and there are separate forces for each of the 25 states and 7 union territories. In 1861, when India was under Britain rule, the Imperial Police Service
was founded. It changed its name to the Indian Police Service in 1947, when India became independent.
Ireland. The national police force for the Republic of Ireland is the Garda Siochana, which has a total strength of about 11,000. The largest part of the force is the Dublin Metropolitan Area and there are also 18 country divisions. Men at the lowest rank are known as Gardai. Members of the women’s police are known as Ban Ghardai. The Garda Siochana, created in 1922, achieved its present general form in 1925.
Malaysia. The national police force is the Royal Malaysian Police and it was founded in 1807 in the town of Penang. There are 664 police stations and 658 police posts in Malaysia.
New Zealand has a single, national police force of 5,000 officers, its present general structure dates from 1886. That first New Zealand police were a few constables appointed in 1840. An armed constabulary was formed in 1846. Various provincial police forces were combined into one armed constabulary in 1877. The unarmed force which exists today was formed in 1886.
Pakistan. The police force in Pakistan has been in existence since declaration of independence in 1948. The police force consists of five separate bodies all headed by the Inspector General of Police. The Islamabad Police patrol the federal capital, Islamabad, and there are forces for each of the four provinces, Baluchistan, North-West Frontier Province, the Punjab and Sind.
Philippines. The Philippines National Police (PNP) is the national police force. It has 50,000 members and is part of the armed forces. The Philippine National Police is an integrated force which took responsibility for internal security in 1991.
Russia. Russian’s police organization was in a state of transition in the early 1990’s, following the breakup of the Soviet Union I December 1991. Some former Soviet institutions remained Members of a national militia continued to provide general policing. The militia operated under a Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) that from 1992 owed its allegiance to the republic of Russia. The former Soviet Committee of State Security, the KGB, had also directed the work of the militia. It was abolished in October 1991.
South Africa. The national police force is known as the South African Police. In 1972, the force was divided into 18 divisions, with 80 police districts and 1,040 police stations. The total number of officers was recorded at 32, 267. The South African Police are more involved in military work than the police forces in other countries. Any part of the police force may be used for national defence. It was formed following the Police Act of 1910.
United Kingdom has more than 150,000 Policemen and policewomen, organized in 52 police forces. In England and Wales, there are 41 police forces organized in countries or group of countries. In addition, London has the London Metropolitan Police and City of London Police. Scotland has eight police forces, organized on a regional basis. The largest UK force is the London Metropolitan Police, with more than 26,000 employees.
Police forces cooperate with one another in the course of their work and share many central services. regional crime squads pursue criminals in any of the areas forming a region. Specialist departments of the London Metropolitan Police include the murder squad, the fraud squad and the criminal records office. The data and facilities of these departments are available to other departments and police forces. The Metropolitan Police has its headquarters at New Scotland Yard.
The Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) is responsible for the policing of Northern Ireland. The RUC has three operational areas, each under the command of an assistant chief constable.
United States police agencies operate under city, country, state, or federal gocernments. Each agency is responsible only to its own division of government. Private police agencies are licensed by the states to provide certain types of police services. New York City has the largest city police department in the United States – about 29,000 police officers. A small town may have police force of only one or two officers.
Some city police departments have specialized forces with certain limited powers. Such forces include airport police, housing police, park police, and transit police. In most countries, a sheriff, elected by the people, is the chief law enforcement officer. In some states, the sheriff’s department provides police services on a contract basis to cities and towns within the country. State police enforce state laws and coordinate police activities within the state.
The most famous federal law enforcement agency is the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The FBI is the chief investigating branch of the United States Department of justice. It investigates federal crimes and handles cases involving stolen money or property that has been taken from one state to another. The FBI also operates the The National Crime Information Center (NCIC) in Washington, DC. The NCIC is a computerized information system tat stores records on wanted persons and stolen property. Nine other major federal law enforcement agencies also have full police powers. They deal with matters such as customs, drug abuse, immigration, the postal service, international intelligence and tax fraud.
Interpol
Interpol is an international organization of police forces from almost all countries. Its official name is the international Criminal Police Organization. Members of Interpol exchange information about international criminals and cooperate in fighting such international crimes as counterfeiting, smuggling and illegal buying and selling weapons. the organization’s staff keeps records of international crime, help in technical cooperation between members, and provide training and general consultation for member police forces.
Interpol is governed by a general assembly, in which each member has one vote. The assembly elects a presidents and 12 other members of the executive committee. The headquarters of Interpol are known as the General Secretariat and employ more than 250 staff. They are located in the city of Lyon in France.
The International Criminal Police Commission was founded in 1923, and based in Vienna. Its aim was to combat international crime, but almost all of its members were European. The commission was reorganized in 1946, and moved to Paris. By 1956, it had grown to 50 members, and it adopted the name Interpol along with the present constitution.
History
In many ancient societies, the military forces served as police. In ancient Rome, for example. The military legions of the rulers enforced the law. Augustus, who became emperor in 27 BC, formed a nonmilitary police force called the vigils. The vigils were responsible for keeping the peace and fighting fires in Rome.
During the AD 800’s, England developed a system of law enforcement based on citizen responsibility. The people of every community were divided into tithings (groups of 10 families), and each tithing was responsible for the conduct of its members. Males who were more than 16 years old stood watch duty. When a serious crime occurred, all able-bodied men joined in a hue and cry. (chase of the suspect). Each shine (county) was leaded by a reeve (chief). The word sheriff is a shortened form of shire reeve.
In 1750, Hendry Fielding, a magistrate and author, organized with his half brother Sir John Fielding, the Bow Street Patrols to police the streets of London. They also formed the Bow Street Runners, who were the first paid detectives. These officers ran to the scene of a crime to capture the criminal and begin an investigation.
Sir Robert Peel, a British stateman, founded the loyal Irish Constabulary in 1814 and the London Metropolitan Police in 1829. The Metropolitan Police was organized along military lines, and its offices were carefully selected and trained. Peel is regar as the father of modern, professional police organizations.
In North America colonists established the English watch system in the towns and villages of New England. In the Southern Colonies, sheriffs were responsible for keeping the peace. Later, on the Western frontier, sheriffs and marshals enforced the law. The Texas Rangers, a band of mounted riflemen organized in the early 1800’s, patrolled the Mexican border and tracked down cattle rustlers and other outlaws. In 1845, New York City combined its separate day and night watches into a single city police force modeled on the London Metropolitan Police.
During the early 1900’s, August Vollmer, the police chief of Berkeley, California, gained fame as a police reformer. Vollmer brought about many changes in the police system. He urged reorganization of police departments, college education for police officers, and the use of scientific methods in police work.
From the 1960’s to the 1990’s, a number of developments occurred that changed the nature of police work. Police in many countries had to deal with riots and political demonstrations on a large scale. Many police forces began actively to recruit members of ethnic minority groups, and to improve relations between ethnic groups in the community. Women were recruited to the police on a larger scale and began to share fully in all police work. And the police worked increasingly with the public in crime prevention, particularly in the development of neighbourhood watch self-help groups.
Related articles – Arrest, Ballistic (Forensic ballistics), Bow Street Runners, Clothing (pictures), Constable, Crime, Criminology, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Fingerprinting, Footprinting, Handcufs, Helicopter (For aerial observation), Juvenile delinquency, Lie detector, Marshal, Sir Robert Peel, Police laboratory, Police State, Proson, Probation, Radar (In controlling traffic speed and flow), Riot, Secret police, Sheriff and bailiff, Thermography, Warrant, and Wiretapping.
POLICE LABORATOR
Police laboratory is a laboratory where experts analyse, identify, and interpret, evidence connected, with a crime. Glass splinters or a gun found on a suspect may be matched with broken glass or a bullet taken from the scene of a crime. The pattern of bloodstains near a body may indicate how a murder was committed. Other evidence includes documents, drugs, and narcotics, fibres, fingerprints, hair and soil. Large police forces maintain their own laboratories.
The technique of using scientific methods in solving crimes is called forensic science. A person who examine evidence in a police laboratory is known as a forensic scientist. The word forensic comes from the Latin word forensic, meaning forum or court of law.
Forensic science includes such specialists as forensic psychiatry, forensic toxicology, and forensic pathology. A forensic psyschiatrist examines people suspected of a crime to determine whether they are legally sane. A forensic toxicologist identities drugs and poisons in body tissues and determines their effects. A forensic pathologist performs postmortem examinations of victims to learn the cause of death.
How evidence is handled
Forensic scientists and other investigations protect all evidence according to a security process called a chain of evidence. This process involves keeping a record keeping a record of each person who handles the evidence. The chain begins at the scene of a crime and ends when the evidence is presented in court. If any evidence is left unguarded during this period, the judge may disallow its admission in court.
There are three steps in handling evidence: (1) collecting the evidence at the scene of a crime, (2) analyzing the evidence in the laboratory and (3) presenting the evidence in court.
Collecting the evidence. In most crimes, the evidence is collected either by police officers or by technicians associated with a police laboratory. But in such serious crimes as bank robbery laboratory. But in such serious crime as bank robbery and murder, forensic scientists themselves often go to the scene of a crime. They gather the evidence and, if possible, try to reconstruct the crime as it happened.
After a crime is discovered, the police freeze the scene. They permit nothing to be disturbed and keep unauthorized people out of the area.
Police investigators first pthotograph the scene from several angles to show the location of the evidence. Then a police artist or an investigator draws a crime scene sketch, which records the exact position of each piece of evidence according to precise measurement. The evidence is then collected.
The investigators use several methods to collect evidence. One of the most important methods is used to reveal fingerprints. First, the experts dust (brush) a surface with powder. The powder sticks to the oils left on a surface by one or more fingers. The print is photographed and then lifted from the surface with clear adhesive tape. The tape transfers the print to a piece of paper, which forms a permanent record. Fingerprints in blood, grease, or other visible material are photographed directly.
To preserve other marks, such as footprints and tyre tracks, investigators first photograph them. Then, a cast of the mark is made with plaster of Paris.
Investigators sometimes use special instruments to collect evidence. For example, a plastic container called a vacuumed trap fits on the end of a vacuum cleaner hose and gathers small particles called trace evidence. Trace evidence includes fibres, hairs, sand, wood splinters, and particles of glass and paint. Larger evidence, such as bullets and firearms, is also collected. Samples are taken from blood or other body-fluid stains, if they are not on removal articles.
Investigators label each piece of evidence. The labels not only identify evidence but also help separate the evidence of one crime from that of another.
Analysing the evidence. A police laboratory uses several techniques to identify and analyse evidence. These techniques include microscopic examination, chemical treatments, and the use of special instruments.
Most police laboratories have several types of microscopes. A bullet comparison microscope is used to compare two or more bullets and to examine tool marks and determine their source (see Ballistics (Forensic ballistics)). Scientists identify minerials and drugs with a polarizing microscope, which enlarges the crystal forms of each material. A stereoscopic binocular microscope helps sort trace evidence and is used to examine handwriting, typewriting and samples of paint.
Handwriting can be identified by experts as belonging to a particular person if there is a genuine sample to compare it with. Forged signatures can also be detected, but it is not always possible to attribute them to a particular person. Typewriters can sometimes be identified by broken or distorted characters.
Scientists use chemicals to identify certain damaged evidence. For example, they use acid to restore partially erased serial numbers on some stolen property. They also use chemicals to determine the cause of an explosion or a fire. These chemicals detect traces of flammable substances, including petrol and paraffin, in the burned remains. Chemicals also help identify samples of blood and other body fluids. It is now possible to identify people not just by their blood group but also by the chemical makeup of their individual body cells.
Since the mid-1900’s, many new instruments have been used in police laboratories. They include the spectrophotometer and the gas chromatograph. A spectrophotometer records light and heat the human eve cannot detect. This instrument shows the pattern of the rays when they strike an object. Forgeries or illegal treasures on documents can be detected by comparing the pattern of rays in ink. A gas chromatograph separates the various components of a substance. The amount of each component is then measured. This method is used to determine the amount of alcohol in a person’s blood. (See Chromatography).
One of the newest techniques of analyzing evidence is called DNA fingerprinting. In this method, investigators identify the persons to whom such substances as blood, hair, or semen belong by analyzing the genetic material that the substances contain. The genetic material, called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is present in most cells. Fingerprinting.
Presenting the evidence. Forensic scientists are responsible for explaining the significance of evidence. They usually present their findings in written reports and may also give evidence in court. They are called expert witnesses because of their training and experience. Courts allow most witnesses to present only facts, but expert witnesses can give opinions based on evidence. They serve chiefly as witnesses for the prosecution.
History
One of the first police laboratories was established in 1910 in Lyon, France, by Edmond Locard, a doctor. Locard helped work out various scientific methods to investigate crimes.
Alphonse Bertillion, a French statistician, developed a method of identifying persons according to their body measurements. This method, called the Bertillon system, was first used in Paris in 1879 and soon spread throughout the world.
Sir William J. Herschel, a British colonial administrator in India during the late, 1800’s, devised a workable method of fingerprint identification. Historians credit Sir Francis Galton, a British scientist, with developing Herschel’s methods into a modern system of fingerprint identification in the 1880’s. By the late 1910’s, fingerprinting had replaced the Bertillon system almost entirely as a more accurate method of identification.
Hans Cross, an Austrian jusge, probably invented the word criminalistics. In his book Criminal Investigation (1893), Gross declared that criminalistics as a science that should use a systematic approach to investigate crimes and analyse evidence. See also Footprinting; Voiceprint.
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