Armed Services of the United States

Aircraft carriers provide the main striking power of the United States Navy's surface fleet. In the photograph above, a tugboat escorts the carrier U.S.S. Carl Vinson into port.

The army blue uniform is worn by on-duty officers and enlisted personnel when ordered by the commanding officer. it also may be worn at on-duty and of-duty social functions.

The army green uniform is for everyday dress use for both enlisted personnel and officers. The officer's ver­sion has black braid on the coat and trousers and a gold strap on the cap.

Uniforms of the U.S. Navy include various types of service dress blue uniforms and the summer white uniform.

A-10 Thunderbolt attack planes provide low-flying air sup­port for ground troops, especially against armoured targets.

The armed services of the United States are the most power­ful in the world. They have been held in high regard by American people since the United States declared inde­pendence in 1776. The U.S. military services split during the American Civil War (1861-1865), but ever since they have provided a strong defensive and offensive counter to the nation's enemies.

U.S. armed services were heavily engaged in both world wars. They formed the bulk of the United Nations forces in the Korean War (1950-1953). In the 1960's and early 1970's, American forces fought a long war against the Communists in Vietnam. In the 1980's and 1990's, U.S. forces have been deployed in the Caribbean, Central America, and the Middle East.

The United States armed forces are divided into four major services; the navy, the marines, the army, and the air force.

Strength of the U.S. armed services

The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world. At the be­ginning of the 1990's, it had a strength of about 535,000 men and about 70,000 women. These figures included some 75,000 members of the U.S. Naval Reserve. It has about 240 front-line surface warships and about 130 submarines. These are supported by about 60 amphibi­ous assault craft, and about 150 support vessels. U.S. naval ships are assigned to one of four huge fleets sta­tioned throughout the world.

Major units of the U.S. Navy include 36 ballistic-missile submarines, and 97 other submarines. It has aircraft carriers, each carrying about 85 aircraft. There are four recommissioned battleships, built in the and 31 cruisers. All but four of the submarines are nu-i clear powered. Five aircraft carriers and nine cruisers are also nuclear powered.

The U.S. Marine Corps is a separate branch of the U.S. armed services, within the Department of the Navy. It is proud of its independence. Its motto is Semper Fidelis (Always Faithful). This motto, together with the Marine Corps emblem, was adopted in 1868. The Marine Corps has a strength of almost 185,000 and men 10,000 women. Active marine units are deployed in one of three divisions, each with three brigades, or in one of two battalion-sized Marine Corps Combat Security Forces. The corps has its own armour, artillery, and amphibious armoured personnel carriers, as well as an air wing with both fighter and fighter-ground attack squadrons.

The Marine Corps maintains forces at sea to protect United States interests abroad. It can undertake amphibious landings. Marines provide protection for United States bases, consulates, embassies, and legations.

The U.S. Army is the-largest and oldest of the U.S. armed services. Its traditions date from June 14, 1775, when the Continental Congress created the first 10 companies of the Continental Army. At the beginning of the 1990's, about half of the army's combat-ready troops were stationed abroad, many in Europe. However, German reunification and the easing of East-West tension in Europe has led to troop reductions. The majority of  U.S. troops normally serve in the United States.

The army has about 770,000 serving personnel, in­cluding approximately 75,000 women. It includes an air­borne and air-portable division, four special forces groups, and a Ranger regiment. It is supported by 12 di­visions in the Army Reserve, and by the National Guard, which can mobilize a further 10 divisions. The army has some 15,000 tanks, more than 9,000 helicopters, and about 30,000 personnel carriers.

The U.S. Air Force is the youngest of the U.S. armed services. Until 1947, it was a branch of the army. The air service received its first aeroplane, a biplane, from the Wright brothers in 1909. U.S. pilots took part in aerial battles in World War I (1914-19181. After the United States entered World War II in 1941, its fighters and bombers played a vital part in both the European and Pacific campaigns. U.S. supply aircraft helped sustain more than two million people in 1948-1949 during the Berlin airlift. During the Korean War, U.S. pilots in Sabre jets fought Soviet-built MiG fighters in the first all-jet air battles. In April 1986, the air force carried out a contro­versial air raid against Libya, and, in 1991, U.S. air units were used in the Persian Gulf War (see Persian Gulf War).

The air force has about 550,000 uniformed personnel, including approximately 70,000 women. It has nearly 400 strategic bombers, including B-2 advanced technology stealth bombers, and over 3,500 tactical fighters, includ­ing the top-secret F-117 stealth fighter. There are 41 squadrons equipped with air-superiority fighters, and 38 squadrons with fighter-ground attack aircraft. There are seven reconnaissance squadrons. Seven special op­erations squadrons are equipped with modified heli­copters and Hercules transports. There are 33 other transport squadrons, giving the air force a massive airlift capability.

Life in the armed forces

Areas of operation. In 1973, the United States ended the draft (conscription). Today, all its service personnel are volunteers. All U.S. armed forces operate within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance. However, in the 1990's, with an improvement in East- West relations, United States foreign policy and military emphasis has begun to concentrate on the Pacific and Middle East regions.

The U.S. Navy operates fleets in all the major oceans of the world. The 2nd Fleet is based in the Atlantic, the 3rd in the Pacific, the 6th in the Mediterranean, and the 7th in the western Pacific. It has huge naval bases on both the west and east coasts of the United States, as well as others in Hawaii, Japan, and the Philippines.

Traditionally, the Marine Corps regards the Pacific as its main theatre of operation. However, marines have landed in other parts of the world, such as the Persian Gulf in 1990.

Of the four services, the U.S. Army was most affected in the early 1990s by the improvement in relations be­tween the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1989, there were more than 200,000 U.S. Army troops based in what was then West Germany. After German reunifica­tion in October 1990, it was planned to considerably re­duce this force. Numerous smaller U.S. bases throughout the rest of Western Europe are being reduced in size, and will perhaps be closed if the situation in Eu­rope remains stable.

The U.S. Air Force maintains bases throughout the world, and was therefore less affected by the rapid changes in European politics in the early 1990's.

Through the Strategic Air Command, it is responsible for the Minuteman and Peacekeeper intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) launch sites, located in various parts of the United States.

Training

Officer training. Each of the U.S. armed services trains and commissions its own officers. Although most spend up to four years at a training academy, others gain their commissions through one of a number of graduate entry schemes.

The navy and the Marine Corps accept officers from the U.S. Naval Academy, from the Naval Reserve Officers.

Training Corps (NROTC), and from civilian universities. Some suitably qualified and senior serving noncommissioned officers are commissioned as officers. Naval officers may apply to join one of four divisions; line, staff limited duty, and warrant. Line officers may command ships or aircraft, or they may specialize in technical fields such as engineering, meteorology, or public af­fairs. Staff officers include doctors, nurses, lawyers, chaplains, and others who usually undertake a shorter period of naval training. Warrant and limited duty officers are usually appointed from the enlisted ranks, and* undertake administrative and technical duties.

Marine Corps officers undertake a minimum of five months' basic training at the Marine Corps Basic School at Quantico, Virginia. Much of this training is in field tactics, leadership, infantry skills, weapon handling, marksmanship, drill, and physical fitness.

Men and women wishing to become United States Army officers may either attend the U.S. Military Acad­emy at West Point, New York, train with the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) at university, attend officer candidate school, or take one of the direct commissions open to members of certain professions such as medicine and law.

Officers may further their education by taking courses, some of which may be completed by corre­spondence. The best officers attend the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, or the Army War College at Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania.

Potential air force officers may graduate from the Air? Force Academy, attend an Air Force Reserve Officers Training Corps (AFROTC) whilst at university, or enlist it an Officers Training School.

Training enlisted personnel. Applicants for the navy enlist initially for between four and six years. They must be aged between 17 and 31, and meet the navy's demanding physical standards. They receive basic training at boot camp, so-called because in the past recruits wore long leggings that looked like boots. Then they are either assigned to trade school to learn such specialist skills as catering and engineering, or are posted directly to a ship. Promotion through the ranks is by examina­tion.

Qualified personnel may reach the rank of chief petty officer after 12 to 14 years, and may then apply for a commission. Enlisted women receive basic training at the naval training centre in Orlando, Florida, after which about half receive advanced training at specialist schools.

Marine Corps recruits must be between 17 and 28 1 years old in the case of men, and 18 and 28 in the case of women. They enlist for periods of three, four, or six years. Basic training comprises a testing ten-week course at either Parris Island, South Carolina; or San Diego, California. Recruits undergo physical conditioning and are taught marksmanship, drill, discipline and the traditions of the marines. Women are trained at Parris Island, and undergo virtually the same training as men, except that they learn defensive rather than offensive tactics. Marines who reenlist may rise to the rank of senior noncommissioned officer. The best will attend the U.S. Naval Academy, receive direct commissions, or be appointed warrant officers.

Recruits to the army must be between 17 and 34 years old, arid physically fit. They enlist for periods of two, three, or four years. After basic training, most male sol­ders and all female soldiers attend specialist schools at­tached to the major bases. There they learn the special techniques of the branch of the army in which they will serve.

Air force trainees undertake a six-week introductory course. Then they specialize in one of over 40 career fields. As with the other services, promotion in the air force is by examination. The best men and women are eventually offered a commission.

Women in the armed services

Women have served in the U.S. armed services in every major conflict during the 1900's. Women's enlist­ment increased after 1973, when the conscription of male recruits ended after the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam, and U.S. armed forces became all­ volunteer. In response to growing political pressure for the military to be seen as an equal-opportunities em­ployer, the U.S. authorities have opened an increasing number of posts to women.

There are now about 230,000 women serving in uni­form, approximately 11 per cent of the entire armed forces. Women make up 20 per cent of the U.S. Army Reserve, and 6 per cent of the U.S. Army National Guard. Although under the U.S. Constitution women are not al­lowed in combat, many serve in forward units and so would inevitably be involved in direct contact with an enemy in any conflict.

During World War II (1939-1945), women served in in­dependent organizations within the main U.S. armed services. Navy women were known as WAVES (Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service). Women in the army joined the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), later renamed the Women's Army Corps (WAC). The air force formed the Women Air force Serv­ice Pilots (WASP'S).

In 1948, women were authorized as equal members of both regular and reserve armed services. Today, women can reach the highest ranks in the services, re­ceive the same pay as men, and, with the exception of taking part in actual combat, share the same duties and responsibilities.

Control of the U.S. armed services

The commander in chief of U.S. armed services is the president. Day-to-day control is delegated to the secretary for defence, who is answerable not only to the president but also to the United States Congress. The president appoints a civilian minister as secretary, or head, of each of the four services.

The Navy Department, located in Washington, D.C, is the central executive authority of the navy. It contains the offices of the secretary of the navy, together with those of the chief of naval operations, the commandant of the Marine Corps, and their respective staffs.

Army and air force headquarters are also in Washing­ton. At army headquarters are the civilian secretary, and the military chief of staff who acts as his principal ad­viser. An army secretariat and staff form a series of sub­ordinate agencies which provide the secretary with spe­cialist advice through the chief of staff.

At the Department of the Air Force, the air force sec­retary is assisted by the chief of staff. They are sup­ported by an Air Staff. Members of this body include the chief scientist, comptroller, inspector general, judge ad­vocate general, surgeon general, chief chaplain, and a scientific advisory board.

Command at sea and in the field

U.S. Navy. The navy is divided into two main sea commands. The Atlantic Fleet has headquarters at Nor­folk, Virginia. The Pacific Fleet has headquarters at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. These two commands are divided into operational fleets. Operational fleets are split into task forces, which are brought together for specific opera­tional needs. Task forces are further divided into task groups, task units, and task elements.

Ships of the same type within each major fleet are fur­ther grouped into type commands for training and ad­ministrative needs. For example, all the submarines in the Atlantic Fleet are under one command for crew training purposes. Other commands include fleet ma­rine forces, mine forces, naval airforces, surface forces, and training commands.

The Military Sealift Command is responsible for the transportation around the world of heavy equipment for the four services. It uses civilian-crewed ships and has its own supply and legal services.

Shore establishments and naval bases provide train­ing facilities for navy crews. They also provide fuel and supplies to all warships within their operational area. Many bases include large repair yards, and a number have naval air stations attached.

U.S. Marine Corps. At any one time, more than two- thirds of all Marine Corps members are posted to oper­ational duties, with the fleet marine forces, on board ships, or as embassy security guards. The fleet marine forces, attached to the Atlantic and Pacific fleets, consist of three marine divisions, three marine aircraft wings, and various support units. One division and air wing, known as an air-ground team, operates from the east coast of the United States. Another is on the west coast, and a third is in the Far East and Hawaii. The teams are kept combat-ready at all times, and are usually the first United States troops ashore in the case of an emer­gency.

Marines serving on board U.S. warships provide in­ternal security. They can also form boarding and beach assault parties.

U.S. Army. From its headquarters at Fort McPherson, Georgia, the U.S. Army Forces Command is responsible for the combat readiness of the army's active and re­serve forces throughout the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. All mainland-based forces, in­cluding the Reserve and the Army National Guard, are controlled through five armies. These five armies—First, Second, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth—are based in army areas across the United States.

The Seventh Army forms a major part of the U.S. Army, Europe, with headquarters at Heidelberg, Ger­many. Until the 1990's, this was the largest overseas command, with troops in half a dozen NATO countries. However, German reunification and the signing of the CTE (Conventional Troops in Europe! Treaty have led to a reduction in the requirement.

The U.S. Army, Pacific, commands all army units based in Hawaii, Alaska, japan, and the Pacific. The Eighth U.S. Army in South Korea has its own headquar­ters in Seoul. The U.S. Army, South, directs units in Cen­tral and South America.

U.S. Special Forces, the Rangers, and a number of other specialized groups are controlled by the 1st Spe­cial Operations Command based at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. Special Forces personnel are organized into groups, each responsible for a specific region of the world. Group members learn the customs, languages, and cultures of their area. They provide expert training for friendly forces, undertake long-range reconnais­sance, and organize antiterrorist activities. Rangers form three battalions of troops trained to make surprise raids behind enemy lines.

U.S. Air Force. The chain of command within the air force stems from the chief of staff and the vice chief of staff, and passes to the various operating agencies and major commands. The operating agencies provide ac­counting and finance support, auditing, engineering, in­formation, news, and intelligence.

Strategic Air Command (SAC) provides the long-range missile, bomber, and reconnaissance force. The SAC commander reports directly to the joint chiefs of staff, under whose direct control SAC would fall in time of war. The Tactical Air Command (TAC) provides air support for the land and sea forces of the United States and its allies throughout the world. It provides tactical reconnaisance, fighter ground attack, and interceptor cover for the army. TAC is under the command of the local area commander.

Space Command is responsible for military satellite operations, missile warning systems, and space shuttle flights carrying military cargoes. Support Commands make sure that the air fleet has all of its logistical needs. Training commands provide well-trained personnel for the air force, and also the Air Force Reserve, and Air Na­tional Guard.

Reserve forces

Each of the four U.S. armed services has its own independent reserve, which may be mobilized in an emergency.

The Navy Reserve is divided into four categories.

The Ready Reserve is fully trained, and its members are 11 liable for immediate call-up. The Standby Reserve-Active has members who regularly train and often maintain standards with the aid of correspondence courses.

Other reserves are the Standby Reserve-Inactive and the j Retired Reserve.

The Marine Corps Reserve includes the Ready Reserve. Members enroll for six years, train for one week-51 end per month, and for two weeks each year. There is ISI also a Marine Standby and Retired Reserve.

The army operates the Army Reserve. Members occasionally go on exercises and can expect to serve abroad in time of crisis. The Army National Guard is recruited in local areas. Members of the National Guard usually remain in their own state, and may be called out by the state governor to assist the civil powers in the event of disorder or a natural disaster. The National Guard can be brought under federal control by presidential decree, and has occasionally served abroad.

Air force. Many junior U.S. Air Force pilots are re­servists, who undertake tours of duty ranging from four years to a full career. The Ready Reserve can be called JH to duty in any emergency. The Air Force Standby Re­serve can only be called up in time of war.

Armaments

U.S. strategic nuclear forces are controlled jointly by the navy and air force. In the early 1990's, the navy had 36 ballistic nuclear submarines, armed with Trident and Poseidon missiles. The Trident has a range of about 6,400 kilometres. The Air Force Strategic Air Command (SAG had 1,000 Minuteman and Peacekeeper interconnental ballistic missiles (ICBM's). The ICBM's are de­ployed in six strategic missile wings, divided into 20 squadrons, each with five launch control centres. SAC also has about 390 active bomber aeroplanes, of which  about 340 are long-range B-52's and B-l B's, and 56 are medium-range FB-111 A's.

The U.S. Navy has reintroduced four 1940's vintage battleships. Each ship is armed with 16-inch (406-mm) ; guns which can fire shells more than 32 kilometres. The Navy relies on aircraft carriers for its main firepower. Battleships and aircraft carriers operate in battle groups, containing cruisers, specialist anticraft and antisubma­rine destroyers, and frigates. Hunter-killer submarines, which can seek out and destroy enemy submarines, oc­casionally operate with a battle group. Such submarines, offer an outer defensive shield but are most effective in] deep water.

Naval aviation aircraft are designed to fly from the decks of aircraft carriers. U.S. naval aircraft include the A-6 Intruder and A-7 Corsair II attack aircraft, the F-14 Tomcat fighter, and the F/A-18 Hornet fighter and light-1 attack aircraft. Specialist aircraft, such as the P-3 Orion and S-3 Viking, carry electronic detection equipment, and work closely with helicopters to provide the fleet with antisubmarine defence.

Warships are armed with an array of guns ranging from the big guns of the battleships to 3-inch (75-mm) quick firing guns on the smaller frigates. Most ships also carry a variety of missiles. These vary in size from Tomahawk cruise and Harpoon surface-to-surface missiles to the much smaller Tartar and Terrier surface-to-air missiles. See Guided missile.

The U.S. Marine Corps is equipped with a combina­tion of army and navy weapons. The aviation wing flies standard naval aircraft, together with the Harrier V/STOL (Vertical/Short Take-Off and Landing) fighter, and heli­copters of all types.

Artillery and armoured support is provided by the marine infantry. Air-defence is supplied by Hawk guided missiles, and shoulder-fired Red-eye and Stinger mis­siles.

The U.S. Army has undertaken a huge re-equipment programme, which has left it smaller in size but just as powerful. The main U.S. battle tank is the Ml Abrams. It is powered by an advanced turbine engine and is armed with a German-designed 120-mm tank gun. It is the fast­est and probably the most powerful tank in the world (see Tank). The M-551 Sheridan, an air-portable recon­naissance assault vehicle, is in service with the airborne divisions.

Artillery is designed to neutralize enemy firepower, and provide support to the infantry and armour during ground attacks. It is becoming increasingly mechanized. Many of the larger guns, such as the 203-mm M-110 self-propelled howitzer, can fire nuclear shells. The artil­lery is being equipped with multi-barrelled launchers capable of firing target-seeking rockets over long dis­tances. See Artillery.

Most mechanized infantry units are equipped with the Bradley MICV (Mechanized Infantry Combat Vehi­cle). The Bradley is armed with an electrically operated 25-mm "chain gun", a machine-gun, and two anti-tank guided missiles.

The crew compartment at the rear can hold six fully equipped infantrymen. The infantrymen are armed with M-16A2 rifles, machine guns, mortars, gre­nades, and light antitank weapons (LAWs).

The army has a huge logistics organization, which in­cludes communications and transportation units, engi­neers, and medical personnel (see Logistics). It has its own aviation wing which provides local reconnaissance and transportation of units in and around the front line.

The U.S. Air Force has many kinds of aircraft, the vast majority of them jets. Planes are classified by num­bers and letters. The letters define the type of plane, the numbers designate the model. Where more than one letter is used, the first shows the current modification, and the second the basic design. Thus an F-111 would be the standard fighter plane, an FB-111 would be a bomber version, and an EF-111 an electronic countermeasure version of the same basic aeroplane.

Bombers drop explosives on enemy targets. These may take the form of iron bombs, which are dropped di­rectly onto the target, or stand-off bombs, which are re­leased some distance from the target and then directed by radar, either from the aircraft or from the ground. See Bomber.

Fighters are divided into two main types. Interceptors or air-superiority fighters fly extremely fast, often in ex­cess of Mach 2 (twice the speed of sound), and are highly manoeuvrable. Most are single-seat, and are armed with air-to-air guided missiles, such as Side­winder, to attack enemy aircraft. Fighter-ground attack aircraft are heavier and slower. They carry a mixture of guns, missiles, and bombs to attack enemy positions on the ground.

Attack planes are low-flying aircraft used to support ground troops. The A-10 Thunderbolt is an attack plane designed specifically to fly slowly and at low level to at­tack enemy tanks. It is extremely heavily armoured to give the pilot maximum protection, and its twin rear- mounted engines can take tremendous punishment without failing.

Other U.S. Air Force aircraft include reconnaissance, transport, and tanker types. Reconnaissance aircraft use advanced cameras and SLAR (Sideways Looking Air­borne Radar) systems to observe enemy forces and in­stallations. Until its withdrawal in 1990, the SR-71 Black­bird reconnaissance jet was the fastest aircraft in service, flying at Mach 3. The latest and most secret U.S. military aircraft are the F-17 stealth fighter, and the B2 stealth bomber, which use a streamlined shape and spe­cial materials to escape detection by enemy radar (see Radar).

Related articles:

Airborne troops

Air force

American Civil War

Amphibious warfare

Army

Aviation

Decorations, medals, and or­ders

Korean War

Logistics

Marine

Navy

Persian Gulf War

Spanish-American War

Vietnam War

War of 1812

Warship

World War I

World War II